What is Tasawwuf?
Tasawwuf, commonly translated as Sufism, is defined by Western authors as Islamic mysticism. The term means literally “becoming a Sufi” and refers to the process of realizing ethical and spiritual ideals. The practice of tasawwuf involves a deep commitment to the purification of the soul and the pursuit of a direct experience of Allah’s presence, seeking a closer relationship with Allah through inner transformation. Tasawwuf is an umbrella term which refers to the inner mystical dimension of Islam.
Unlike the exoteric aspects of Islamic practice (sharīʿah), which govern outward religious law, tasawwuf addresses the bāṭin—the inward life of the heart. Classical Sufi texts stressed certain teachings and practices of the Quran and the sunnah and gave definitions of tasawwuf that described ethical and spiritual goals and functioned as teaching tools for their attainment. The consciousness of the presence of Allah and the feeling of Love and awe which accompany it must permeate both faith and practice, and it is precisely this awareness of the nearness and presence of Allah that the Sufis have as their ultimate goal in all their activities.
Origins & lineage
Sufism emerged early on in Islamic history, partly as a reaction against the worldliness of the early Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) and mainly under the tutelage of Hasan al-Basri. Hasan al-Basri, a tabi’, is considered a “founding figure” in the “science of purifying the heart”. The word tasawwuf did not emerge until the second century of Hijra, though this does not mean that its sense did not exist before then.
The Sufis trace the origin of Tasawwuf to the Prophet of Islam himself, and all the religious orders trace their lines of succession back to him. During the lifetime of Muhammad, some companions were more inclined than others to “intensive devotion, pious abstemiousness and pondering the divine mysteries” more than Islam required, such as Abu Dharr al-Ghifari. Eminent Sufis such as Ali Hujwiri refer to Ali as having a very high ranking in Tasawwuf, and Junayd of Baghdad regarded Ali as sheikh of the principles and practices of Tasawwuf.
Historically, Tasawwuf developed in the 8th and 9th centuries CE, during the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates, when Islamic society was experiencing significant cultural, economic, and political changes. An intimate and even passionate relationship with God is associated particularly with the outstanding early woman Sufi, Rabi’a of Basra (d. 801). Key early figures who systematized tasawwuf include Abu al-Qasim al-Qushayri (d. 1072), who produced the Risala (Epistle), one of the earliest ordered treatises on tasawwuf, presenting Sufi teaching through chains of transmission from recognized masters. Al-Ghazali was a philosopher, theologian, and mystic who played a pivotal role in integrating Sufi teachings into mainstream Islamic thought, and his famous work, Ihya Ulum al-Din (The Revival of the Religious Sciences), is considered a cornerstone in Islamic spirituality. Ibn Arabi, often referred to as “The Greatest Master,” is one of the most profound and complex Sufi philosophers who wrote extensively about the concept of unity (Wahdat al-Wujud), which teaches that all existence is one and that everything is a manifestation of God. The 13th-century poet Jalal al-Din Rumi remains the most widely read Sufi author worldwide.
Sufism had a long history already before the subsequent institutionalization of Sufi teachings into devotional orders (tariqa) in the early Middle Ages, and the term tariqa is used for a school or order of Sufism, or especially for the mystical teaching and spiritual practices of such an order with the aim of seeking ḥaqīqah (ultimate truth). Eventually, various Sufi orders emerged — such as Qādiriyyah, Naqshbandiyyah, Chishtiyyah, Suhrawardiyyah — each with different founders.
How it’s practiced
Tasawwuf is transmitted through structured relationships and practices. A tariqa has a murshid (guide) who plays the role of leader or spiritual director. The members or followers of a tariqa are known as murīdīn (singular murīd), meaning “desirous”, viz. “desiring the knowledge of knowing God and loving God”.
Central practices include:
Dhikr (Remembrance): Important foci of Sufi worship include dhikr, the practice of the remembrance of God. Tasawwuf incorporates a number of practices, such as dhikr (repetition of God’s name), muraqabah (meditation), and sama (spiritual listening), which help the practitioner move beyond the external and into the inner dimensions of the faith.
Suhbah (Companionship): Suhbah has a special importance in almost all of the tariqat and in particular in the Naqshiband tariqa, due to this transfer of spiritual energy and blessings from heart to heart, and Shah Naqshiband has said: “Our way of spiritual training is founded upon the suhbah”.
Maqāmāt (Spiritual stations): The search for God and the wayfaring on the path involve a gradual inner and ethical transformation through various stages, with most orders adopting seven maqāmāt (a station on the voyage towards spiritual transformation). Although some of these stations are ascetical in nature, their primary functions are ethical, psychological and educational: they are designed as a means for combating the lower-self (mujāhadat al-nafs) and as a tool for its training and education (riyāḍat al-nafs).
Ascetic disciplines: Intensive and protracted prayer (including not only the five obligatory ritual prayers daily, but also five supererogatory or “extra credit” prayers) and meditation on the meanings of the Qur’an were notable features of early Sufi practice.
Tasawwuf today
Despite a relative decline of Sufi orders in the modern era including attacks and accusations from fundamentalist Islamic movements (such as Salafo-Wahhabist groups) who view the Sufis as those who have deviated from the deen, Sufism has continued to play an important role in the Islamic world and has also influenced various forms of spirituality in the West and generated significant academic interest.
Contemporary seekers encounter tasawwuf through multiple channels: traditional tariqa orders that maintain unbroken chains of transmission; Sufi-inspired retreat centers in Europe and North America; the widespread availability of translations of Rumi, Ibn Arabi, and al-Ghazali; and academic programs in Islamic mysticism at universities. In Turkey the legacy of Rumi and the Mevlevi Order still shapes culture and inner life, in the Arab world orders like the Shadhiliyya and Rifa’iyya keep their chains of practice unbroken, in West Africa the Tijaniyya and Qadiriyya remain woven into the spiritual fabric of whole nations, and in South and Southeast Asia Sufi shrines and orders are part of the daily life of millions.
Western interest often focuses on Rumi’s poetry and universalist themes, sometimes divorced from Islamic context. In some Western contexts, Sufism is presented as a universal mysticism, a poetic philosophy, or even a lifestyle brand—sometimes stripped of its theological and ritual foundations.
Common misconceptions
Tasawwuf is not a separate sect: Existing in both Sunni and Shia Islam, Sufism is not a distinct sect, as is sometimes erroneously assumed, but a method of approaching or a way of understanding the religion. It is not correct to define Sufism as simply a counter-cultural phenomenon; it has always been and continues to be an integral part of mainstream Islam.
It does not reject Islamic law: Although tasawwuf mostly concentrates on the inner world of man and deals with the religious commandments with respect to their meaning and effects on man’s spirit and heart and is therefore abstract, it is not contradictory with any of the Islamic ways based on the Book and the Sunna, and the real, perfected sufis have always depended on the basic principles of Shari’a and based their thoughts on the Book and the Sunna.
Etymology debates obscure unity: Scholars have proposed multiple etymologies—from ṣūf (wool), to ṣafāʾ (purity), to Greek sophia (wisdom)—but Al-Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun both rejected all possibilities other than ṣūf (wool) on linguistic and documented grounds. These debates, while historically interesting, distract from the lived tradition.
Historical controversies exist: Certain Sufi figures and claims have been disputed within Islamic scholarship for centuries. Accusations against Tasawwuf made by scholars such as Ibn al-Jawzi and Ibn Taymiya were not directed against Tasawwuf in principle, but to specific groups and individuals in the times of these authors. Contemporary Salafi movements often reject tasawwuf entirely, while traditional Sunni scholarship has largely integrated it.
How to begin
For intellectual entry, read Coleman Barks’s accessible translations of Rumi’s poetry alongside scholarly editions that preserve Islamic context (such as Jawid Mojaddedi’s Oxford World’s Classics translation of the Masnavi). Al-Ghazali’s Ihya Ulum al-Din (The Revival of the Religious Sciences) is considered a cornerstone in Islamic spirituality and is widely available in translation. Martin Lings’s What is Sufism? provides a reliable overview from within the tradition.
For experiential entry, seekers traditionally look for a living teacher. For proper training, murīdūn are urged to put themselves under the guidance of a master (murshid). Established Western-accessible orders include branches of the Naqshbandi, Qadiri, and Chishti silsilas. Many cities host Sufi gatherings featuring dhikr circles, poetry readings, and talks on spiritual practice. Online platforms like SeekersGuidance offer structured courses in Islamic spirituality taught by traditionally trained scholars.
It is essential to distinguish between traditional tasawwuf, rooted in Islamic theology and practice, and New Age or “universal Sufism” movements that may detach these teachings from their original context.